THOMAS WALLACE KNOX:
AN UNCOMMON AMERICAN ADVENTURER
IN THE HOLY LAND
By:
James
R. Phelps
Introduction
Thomas Wallace Knox emerged as one of the preeminent travel writers in the second half of the Nineteenth Century. He was privileged to travel the world during a time of unprecedented access. When compared with other works of the time, his travelogues for adults and boys appear remarkably free of Western superiority and condescension toward other cultures so common during this period. It is this unique aspect that Knox brings to his writings that make his travel to the Holy Land historically relevant and interesting to modern readers.
The basis for these perceptions develop when reading the biography of Knox, then the itinerary of his travels to the Holy Land, followed by the historical context in which these travels occurred. The pervasive ideology of Social Darwinism is absent from Knox’s travelogues making him unique among late Nineteenth Century travel writers. Research offers an explanation into how Knox was able to express his experiences in the Holy Land to both adult and male adolescent readers. Comparison shows the differences between the targeted audiences, especially when compared to typical travelogues that were targeted at adolescents during the same period.
Many biases can be found in the written descriptions of the peoples and locations described by Nineteenth Century authors. Throughout this work the spelling errors and racial descriptions are left in their original format as used by their authors. It is up to the modern reader to decipher the authors’ intentions toward description of race and it would be dishonest to change the original wording.
Biography
Thomas Wallace Knox found himself drawn to critically look at, and descriptively write about, his surroundings. Born on 26 June 1835, in Pembroke, New Hampshire, little is known about Knox’s childhood and adolescence. As an adult, he was discontented with either his life as the headmaster of Kingston Academy, or with the education of others, and Knox struck out on his own.[1] In the year 1860 Knox found himself in the Colorado goldfields, not as a miner, but as a reporter and newspaper printer. Cutting his teeth by writing for the Rocky Mountain News (Denver-1860) and the Western Mountaineer (Golden, CO 1859-1860),[2] James Wren tells us in his biography of Knox that he:
Understood his audience, and he shaped his writing to capture and hold their intellectual curiosity by a characteristic simplification of even the most complicated issues of the day. To this end he asked the five basic questions at the heart of good journalistic reportage-who? what? when? where? and why?- and never more. However mundane or pedestrian Knox’s approach, writing with a specific audience in mind led to a large readership for his work.[3]
This experience as a correspondent in the rough environment of the Colorado Territory prepared Knox for his next endeavor, that of a war correspondent.
Knox enlisted in the California National Guard as a Lieutenant Colonel at the outbreak of the Civil War and was subsequently discharged after being wounded during a skirmish in Missouri. Knox returned to what he was most skilled at, writing newspaper articles, this time for the New York Herald.[4] It was here that Knox ran afoul of General Grant when he published information concerning troop locations, which Grant believed aided the enemy. Grant had Knox court-martialed for “giving intelligence to the enemy,” and “being a spy.”[5] Although a personal appeal to President Lincoln got his conviction revoked, Knox never regained the good graces of Grant.[6]
Knox’s most significant contribution to the war effort came not from the articles he wrote, but from his ability to solve problems. Recognizing the difficulties Grant had in commanding armies where specific battlefield information was unavailable, Knox developed a method of sending battle plans by telegraph and was later granted a patent for this invention.[7] His wartime newspaper articles would later be combined into Camp-fire and Cotton-field, Southern Adventure in Time of War: Life with the Union Armies, and Residence on a Louisiana Plantation, a widely popular book seeing three publication runs in 1865.[8]
Following the Civil War, Knox began his worldwide travels. His experience in the field with the Union Army combined with his knowledge of the telegraph, gained him a position with the Russo-American Telegraph Company. He published Overland through Asia (1870) describing his adventures in Siberia, China and Russia. It was the success of this second book that convinced Knox that his true calling was to travel and write about his experiences in locations where most of his target audience would be unable to travel.[9]
Knox’s ability to become fluent in languages eased his interactions with native peoples around the world, gaining him access to the inner circles of the aristocracy and government. Using this access and the freedom of movement that it provided, Knox traveled the world, recording his observations and experiences, making them available to his targeted audience. Knox eventually wrote forty-six books between 1865 and his death in 1896, seven of which were republished under different titles. One of the most successful of his endeavors was The Boy Travelers series, with twenty volumes published as part of this series. Knox was so respected as a writer of travelogues for boys, that Henry M. Stanley approached Knox to have his famous tome, Through the Dark Continent, rewritten as part of The Boy Travelers series. This was then published under the title The Boy Travelers on the Congo: Adventures of Two Youths in a Journey with Henry M. Stanley “Through the Dark Continent” (1887).[10]
Knox died 6 January 1896, in New York City at the age of 61, less than a year after returning from a trip to the Sahara.[11] Knox’s “who, what, when, how, and why” system of newspaper reporting framed the approach he took in writing his travelogues. Unlike other travel writers of his time, he saw things through the lens of an objective reporter and not that of an ideologue or nationalist.
Itinerary
Thomas Wallace Knox made two “peaceful crusade[s] to the East . . . . for pleasure and profit”[12] during the late nineteenth century. The first trip (1873-1874) he documented in his book Backsheesh! He combined this with his second trip to the Holy Land (1878) into the fourth book written for his popular The Boy Travelers series.
Backsheesh! begins with Knox departing from New York by steamer in April 1873. He then regales us with perceptions of other voyagers, many first time ocean travelers, through calm and storm as they cross the Atlantic to Liverpool, England. Explaining that other writers had already (excessively) documented the route from England to Austria, Knox took his readers directly to Vienna to begin the journey down the Danube. Using both local and “accelerated”[13] steam boats he passes through Belgrade, Moldawa, Orsova, Bucharest and Galatz on his way to Odessa on the Black Sea. Crossing the Black Sea on steamers operated by “the Russian Company of Navigation and Commerce,”[14] he travels to the Crimea, landing in Sevastopol. He then proceeds by carriage to Yalta, returning to Odessa by steamer, and traveling south to Constantinople.
Knox makes it a point to visit places and shops in Constantinople that other writers, including Mark Twain, had already made famous. Upon leaving the city, he makes a brief stop in Athens before heading to Smyrna, Rhodes, and Alexandretta (the port of Aleppo) enroute to Beyrout. Following an inland four-day excursion to Damascus, he finally arrives in Jaffa, beginning his visit to Jerusalem and the surrounding sites. Knox finishes his travelogue with a detailed exploration of Egypt and the ruins along the Nile, ending this particular trip in the city of Alexandria in February 1874.
The Boy Travelers takes readers on an alternative route, which began on a steamer out of Bombay, India. Traveling across the Indian Ocean, and into the Red Sea, they landed at Suez and crossed over to Cairo. From this point the Boys’ travels nearly mirror Knox’s previous trip to Egypt and Palestine. The primary difference is that they took the overland route from Jerusalem to Damascus, ending this particular installment of The Boy Travelers in the city of Beyrout.[15]
History
of the texts
Backsheesh! or Life and Adventures in the Orient was originally published by both A. D. Worthington of Hartford, Connecticut, and A. G. Nettleton of Chicago in 1875. A. D. Worthington republished it in 1877 under the title The Oriental World, or New Travels in Turkey, Russia, Egypt, Asia Minor, and the Holy Land, with Graphic Sketches of Life and Adventures in the Orient.[16]
Knox combined his two trips to the Holy Land into Adventures of Two Youths in a Journey to Egypt and the Holy Land, originally published by Harper, in New York City, during 1882. Harper later republished the book as The Boy Travelers in the Far East, Part Fourth: Adventures of Two Youths in a Journey to Egypt and the Holy Land in 1883.[17]
The number of books in each publication run is unknown. Yet it is possible to infer that Knox, as a successful writer, probably saw his books “selling between several hundred thousand to over a million copies of each series. . .”[18] With each of Knox’s books selling for three dollars, “travel writing . . . was indeed a profitable enterprise.”[19]
Introduction
and historical context of Backsheesh! and The Boy Travelers
A self-proclaimed “wandering American” and prodigious travel writer, Knox provides modern readers with a view of the Holy Land, as seen through the eyes of a unique American during the late Nineteenth Century.[20] The second half of the Nineteenth Century was a time of tremendous change. Modern innovations had eased what were once long and arduous journeys. Improvements in the steam engine made transoceanic travel both safe and economical. Steamships traversed the oceans and rivers of the world. The Suez Canal opened, connecting trade routes between Mediterranean and Orient.[21] Changes in domestic ideologies that were flourishing in the west, negatively altered the societal views travelers held for foreign countries and native peoples, while costly wars throughout the world changed the political landscape.
This was the age of inventors, writers, painters, activists and industrialists. Alfred Nobel, Louis Pasture, Thomas Edison and Alexander Graham Bell’s inventions had changed the known world. The works of Karl Marx, Herbert Spencer, and Lewis Carroll would influence thinking and writing for the next 100 years. The metropolitan Museum of Art opened in New York and impressionists would dominate the world of fine art. Susan B. Anthony, William Booth, Benito Juarez, David Livingstone, Otto von Bismark, Charles Russell, Mary Baker Eddy and Henry George would change the world through their activism, nationalism, and religious beliefs. Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller would set the standard by which wealth would be measured until the late Twentieth Century.[22]
These were by no means the only people and events which shaped Knox’s world. The Meiji Restoration opened Japan, offering Knox the opportunity to be one of the first American tourists to see the Land of the Rising Sun. Reconstruction gave rise to the Ku Klux Klan, while the National Rifle Association, Granger movement, and Labor organizations would change how Americans viewed their communities and their compatriots, helping to shape future America. The pacification of Native American peoples would occupy the West and Jesse James would become an American legend.[23]
This was the era in which Knox traveled and wrote. It is in this changing world that Knox gives us two books on the Holy Land written for two different audiences: adult middle-class Americans and adolescent American boys. Comparing these works with those offered by other writers of the time presents the modern reader with insight into America’s world-view, and Knox’s ability to standout.
Research
Herbert
Spencer’s application of Darwinian evolution to human societies fueled
America’s racist ideologies during the 1870s.
Referred to as Social Darwinism, Spencer’s theories were applied to
every aspect of American society.[24] This ideology is clearly seen in the
prejudicial themes in late Nineteenth Century children’s books written about
the Holy Land. Blatant racism is
demonstrated in B. W. Johnson’s Young Folks in Bible Lands (1892) and
Elizabeth Champney’s Three Vassar
Girls in The Holy Land
(1892) but is nearly absent from Knox’s The Boy Travelers (1883).
In Joseph Shadur’s Young Travelers to Jerusalem: an Annotated Survey of American and English Juvenile Literature on the Holy Land [from] 1785-1940, Shadur describes The Boy Travelers as “The most reliable and thoroughly researched juvenile travelogue writing in the latter two decades of the 19th century...”[25] He goes on to say:
Knox was endowed with a sense of fairness and respect for other peoples, even those commonly regarded as “savages” by his contemporaries, and took pains to inculcate this in his young readers.[26]
This is not to say that Knox is completely devoid of bias and colorful metaphors in his description of the inhabitants of the Holy Land. The primary difference between Knox and his contemporaries is in his ability to restrict negative descriptions to specific individuals. In both Backsheesh! and The Boy Travelers he describes the beggars lining the roadside outside the city of Ramleh:
There were a lot of beggars – twenty or more – drawn up, or rather squatted in a line where they could assail us. Some were blind, some had lost their hands or their fingers, and each of them held up his mutilated stumps to attract attention. We were told some of them were lepers, but that the majority has been mutilated either by themselves or their parents in order to insure their success as beggars. One of the party gave a small coin to the worst looking of the mendicants, and immediately the whole crowd set in pursuit . . . and nothing short of a blow with a cudgel will shake them off.[27]
This story is slightly tempered in The Boy Travelers with a different ending, with the boys spurring their horses and riding away faster than the beggars could follow.[28] Also in Backsheesh! Knox expresses his dissatisfaction with the Turkish toleration of beggars saying, “The government would do a charitable work if it would assemble the beggars of Ramleh into a close room and asphyxiate them over a charcoal fire.”[29] This comment was not included in The Boy Travelers.
Unlike Knox, B. W. Johnson provides his readers a work filled with the
influences of Social Darwinism. Writing
for the Christian Endeavour movement’s one million members and their children,
Johnson states his primary objective is “To convey such information as would
give a correct and satisfactory conception of the East as it is to-day.”[30] On closer reading significant examples of
racial bias against Arabs, Muslims, and Jews can be found, interspersed with
praise for Christians and Europeans. In
stark contrast to Knox, Johnson describes Arabs and Bedouins as “villainous
looking”[31] with
“swarthy faces, black glistening eyes, and fierce countenances . . . Who have
considered it their right to rob and even to murder all travelers who do not
buy their protection [for over 3000 years].”[32] He describes the population of Bethany as
Mohammedans who were “always filthy, wretched and disagreeable.”[33] Later, in an interesting contrast to his
obvious bias against Arabs and Muslims, Johnson describes the Armenian quarter
of Jerusalem as “clean, pleasant with attractive gardens and shade trees,”[34]
and the inhabitants of Bethlehem writing that they were:
Clean, and had a well-to-do appearance, were civil, and I do not
remember that a single person asked us for backshish . . . . So unusual
in Palestine it was questioned and determined that the people were
Christians. Christian towns were clean
and the request for backshish was seldom or never heard.[35]
Shadur tells us that Elizabeth Champney demonstrates a broader-minded outlook in the last of her eleven volumes of the Three Vassar Girls series confronting the “common manifestations of anti-semitism as part of the story.”[36] While the later portion of the book does show acceptance (and a conversion of the blatant racist Mrs. Remington) for Bird Orchard, a Jewess and one of her three heroines, the overall majority of the work “blithely flaunts stereotypes and prejudices – social, racial, ethnic, religious, & environmental – that are appalling by today’s standards.”[37] Throughout Champney’s work the dragoman (and all Arabs) speak in a pidgin form of English. Jews speak in exaggerated syllabic tones with ‘z’ for ‘th’ and ‘b’ for ‘p’ as examples. The first Jewish man that the characters meet with is described as “a very common person, an unmistakable Jew, of the most objectionable type.”[38] While Jews of great learning or great wealth “were not so very objectionable,” the majority of Jews were on the same social scale as “forgers, lunatics, [and] the very illiterate. Mercenary creatures.”[39] It is interesting to note that unlike Johnson, Champney found the population of Bethany only “uninteresting.”[40] Research reveals that this is likely due to Champney having not actually visited all the locations she describes in her writings, excerpting descriptions directly from travel brochures of the time.
Of all the authors of English and American juvenile literature on young travelers to the Holy Land between 1785 and 1940, Joseph Shadur has singular praise for Thomas Knox.
A rare, more balanced view in these children’s books of the relative merits of Western and oriental moral principles is expressed by Thomas W. Knox, a much traveled writer of vast personal experience with “primitive” peoples (and with little illusions about his own kind).[41]
As much of The Boy Travelers comes from Backsheesh!, it would be appropriate to apply the same praise to that work.
Knox’s more even-handed manner of presenting the Holy Land can clearly be seen in his disgust with the various Christian sects that had partitioned the Church of the Nativity.
In Backsheesh!:
The whole space is carefully parceled out among the rival sects, and Turkish soldiers are constantly on duty there, to preserve order! How we Christians love one another.[42]
And The Boy Travelers:
It was necessary to call in the Turkish soldiers to suppress the disturbance, and the hostility among the Christians is so great that a guard is kept there constantly to preserve order. . . . One thing that jarred heavily on our feelings was the presence of two Turkish soldiers with bayonets fixed. . . . Isn’t it dreadful to think that only by force can order be maintained in this holy place![43]
Shadur confirms Knox’s reports noting, “Turkish soldiers were regularly posted at the entrance to check outbreaks of sectarian violence.”[44]
In both Backsheesh! and The Boy Travelers Knox relates the Arab explanation for the propensity of the Arab peoples to lie:
The Arabs say that when the Father of Lies came on earth to distribute his goods he had nine bagfuls. He spread one bag of lies in Europe, and then started for Asia and Africa. He landed in Egypt one evening, intending to scatter a bagful over that country and Syria, and then go on the next day to Asia; but while he slept the Arabs stole all his remaining stock, and distributed it among themselves. This accounts for the great difficulty they have in telling the truth.[45]
It was not only the human inhabitants of the Holy Land that Knox described. In Backsheesh! there are many humorous descriptions of dogs, horses, camels and mules in several different cities. He highlights the canine problems in the city of Jerusalem with a short, but concise statement in The Boy Travelers, “The dogs of Jerusalem are quite as bad as those of Cairo, and ready to steal whenever there is the least chance of doing so.”[46]
Shadur summarizes the physical descriptions and illustrations in this genre of Holy Land literature best, writing:
All too many descriptions, pictures, prints, and illustrations of the Holy Land tended to perpetuate idealized and sanitized visions of the country and its people . . . [these] idealized visions of the Heavenly Jerusalem were quickly dispelled by the dismal neglect, poverty, and backwardness.[47]
This is clearly seen in both Knox and Champney’s works:
In describing Jerusalem; “Gutters pass as streets in the Jewish quarter.”[48]
The streets of Jerusalem “were filthy and offensive.”[49]
Jerusalem is the reverse of pleasing. Its streets are narrow and badly paved, and no effort is made to keep them clean. Some of the narrow ones are particular filthy, and one must have good boots and be careful about his steps . . .[50]
Jerusalem disappoints us a little, as we had expected wider and cleaner streets . . . . but it is our candid opinion that Jerusalem is worse than Cairo, Suez, or any other city we have visited. The streets are very narrow, the pavement is bad, and nobody seems to care whether they are clean or not. Some of the side streets would do honor to New York.[51]
It seemed as if about one-fifth of the inhabitants of Jerusalem were engaged in the manufacture of objects of olive wood.[52]
And “we should think that the principal occupation of the inhabitants of Jerusalem is the manufacture and sale of wood-carvings.”[53]
Menahem Regev’s foreword to Shadur summarizes the overall goal expressed by the authors of children’s texts and their reference to the religions of the Holy Land better than this author is able:
To the extent that Jews are mentioned ( ) they generally appear as individuals, pitiful and barely tolerated, in disadvantaged positions compared to the dominant Muslims, and to the Christians who basked in the prominence of the European powers. The religion of Islam has virtually no place in this literature, most of which is aimed – explicitly or implicitly – at making its young readers better Christians.[54]
Joseph Shadur expounds on this saying:
Muslims, Jews, and Christians of all but Protestant denominations are generally depicted in uncomplimentary terms. Even assessments aspiring to fairness tend to be patronizing. There could be no doubt in the minds of young readers of these books as to their own innate superiority over the people described . . . . Arab Muslims, as distinct from Christian Arabs, are portrayed by most of the authors in extremely negative terms as fanatical, uncouth, dirty, greedy, cheating, and untruthful.[55]
It is in the midst of these biases that Knox attempts to describe what he viewed, not from a religious point of view or with a religious or racist agenda in mind, but simply as a traveler and as the American adventurer he was.
Conclusion
Wren’s biography of Thomas Wallace Knox argues that Knox was representative of middle-class America. However, a close reading of Knox contradicts this evaluation. Knox was unique among Americans and especially among travel writers. He was neither disillusioned by the conditions in the Holy Land or by the people he encountered during his two trips. This is probably due to his experiences with a wide range of ethnic groups while in rugged locals from early Denver, to Siberia during the winter; from experiencing first-hand the horror of the Civil War, to transiting Australia while it was still a penal colony. Shadur’s estimation that Knox was “among the most renowned American travelers in his time, ‘roughing it’ in some of the most remote, wild regions of the world” is right on the mark.[56] It was Knox’s extensive travels throughout Asia and Europe that allowed him to view the Holy Land from a perspective that differed from that of the typical traveler.
Differentiating himself from Johnson and many others, Knox was neither a minister nor predisposed to certain prejudices resulting from a strict religious lifestyle. Unlike Champney who most likely wrote in abstentia from the actual locations, Knox traveled to the places he describes. Upon the rare occasion where Knox uses another writer’s work, he references both the author and the work (as well as any literary and scientific credentials). One characteristic found in Knox’s writing is his habit of recounting every observation, filling his narratives with unusual details, and unique experiences. In many cases his prose appears to be disjointed, wandering from subject to subject, yet he makes use of several voices to present his narratives interjecting humor and excitement into what would otherwise be mundane.
Nothing can be found in either of Knox’s books on the Holy Land to indicate that he was influenced by the prejudice of the Social Darwinism that permeated the works of other writers of the time. He expresses some anti-semitism and a dislike for the Bedouins, yet he speaks highly of his Dragoman, Ali Solomon. Knox was so impressed by this Syrian that he endorsed him in both books to future travelers.[57] He provides an honest, if cynical, appraisal of all ethnic groups he encounters, then tempers his more critical descriptions when writing for adolescent boys.
Shadur tells us that “Contemporary assessments of the [Boy Traveler] series varied from ‘stodgy and dull’ to ‘bubbling over with fun, fact, and fiction.”[58] Over a century after initial publication, we can see that both Backsheesh! and The Boy Travelers offer insights into Middle Eastern culture and history, as well as a practical guide to the realities of the Holy Land of the Nineteenth Century. Perhaps even a guide to our own modern day realities and prejudices.
[1] James A. Wren, “Thomas Wallace Knox (26 June 1835 – 6 January 1896),” American Travel Writers, 1850-1915, Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume One Hundred Eighty-Nine, ed. Donald Ross and James J. Schramer (Detroit: A Bruccoli Clark Layman Book, Gale Research, 1998), 240.
[3] Wren, 240.
[4] Virtualology ™, Edited Appletons Encyclopedia, 2001: http://www.famousamericans.net/thomaswallaceknox/, 1/31/2003, 1.
[5] John W. Emerson, "Grant's Vicksburg Campaign" Midland Monthly, XI, 3 (Mar. 1899), pp. 232-44, available from the Ulysses S. Grant Association, http://www.lib.siu.edu/projects/usgrant/emerson/30mar1899.html, 5/29/2002, 1.
[6] Emerson, 2.
[7] Wren, 240.
[8] Wren, 238.
[9] Wren, 241.
[10] Thomas Wallace Knox, The Boy Travelers on the Congo: Adventures of Two Youths in a Journey with Henry M. Stanley “Through the Dark Continent” (New York: Harper, 1887), preface.
[11] Wren, 238-246
[12] Knox, BACKSHEESH! Or Life and Adventures in the Orient (Hartford, Conn.: A. D. Worthington & Co., 1875), preface.
[13] Knox, BACKSHEESH!, 66.
[14] Knox, BACKSHEESH!, 95.
[15] Knox, The Boy Travelers Part Fourth: Adventures of Two Youths in a Journey to Egypt and the Holy Land (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1882), 5-8.
[16] Wren, 238.
[17] Wren, 239.
[18] Joseph Shadur, Young Travelers to Jerusalem: an Annotated Survey of American and English Juvenile Literature on the Holy Land 1785-1940 (Ramat Gan, Israel: The Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies, Bar Ilan University, 1999), 47.
[19] Shadur, 47.
[20] Wren, 240.
[21] The History Channel, http://www.historychannel.com/perl/timeline, 3/27/2003.
[22] Ibid.
[23] Ibid.
[24] Eric Foner and John A. Garraty, eds, “The Reader’s Companion to American History” (Houghton Mifflin, 1991) as found on The History Channel, http://www.historychannel.com/perl/print_book.pl?ID=35686, 3/27/2003.
[25] Shadur, 48.
[26] Shadur, 51.
[27] Knox, Backsheesh!, 376.
[28] Knox, The Boy Travelers, 283.
[29] Knox, Backsheesh!, 377.
[30] B. W. Johnson, Young Folks in Bible Lands: Including Travels in Asia Minor, Excursions to Tarsus, Antioch and Damascus, and the Tour of Palestine. With Historical Explanation (St. Louis: Christian Publishing Company, 1892), 3-4.
[31] Johnson, 128.
[32] Johnson, 238.
[33] Johnson, 263.
[34] Johnson, 297-298.
[35] Johnson, 338.
[36] Shadur, 48.
[37] Shadur, xvii.
[38] Elizabeth W. Champney, Three Vassar Girls in The Holy Land (Boston: Estes and Laurait, 1892), 135.
[39] Champney, 193 and 194.
[40] Champney, 176.
[41] Shadur, 141.
[42] Knox, Backsheesh!, 402-403.
[43] Knox, The Boy Travelers, 320 and 325.
[44] Shadur, 11.
[45] Knox, The Boy Travelers, 273.
[46] Knox, The Boy Travelers, 300.
[47] Shadur, 10 and 11.
[48] Champney, 184.
[49] Champney, 199.
[50] Knox, Backsheesh!, 381.
[51] Knox, The Boy Travelers, 287-288.
[52] Knox, Backsheesh!, 386.
[53] Knox, The Boy Travelers, 296.
[54] Shadur, xiv.
[55] Shadur, 143.
[56] Shadur, 51.
[57] Knox, Backsheesh!, 374, The Boy Travelers, 269.
[58] Shadur, 51.